Updated April 2011 — Currently Under Revision

I. INTRODUCTION

Updated March 2007

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Primary care clinicians should be capable of evaluating HIV-infected patients at all stages of HIV infection and should consult with a clinician who has experience with management of antiretroviral therapy (ART) according to current guidelines (see Antiretroviral Therapy). (III)

Clinicians should involve patients in decisions regarding HIV treatment. (III)

Clinicians should schedule routine monitoring visits at least every 4 months for all HIV-infected patients who are clinically stable. (III)

As the treatment of HIV has continued to reduce mortality and increase the number of clinically stable patients, the primary care approach to HIV-infected patients has evolved. In addition to the management of HIV infection, a renewed emphasis on general preventive medicine has emerged.

The recommendations in this chapter are intended for the management of both HIV-infected patients who are receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) and those who are not. The following aspects of care are discussed:

• Medical history and physical examination
• Laboratory assessments and diagnostic testing
• Health maintenance and preventive care
• Coordination of care
• Use of chronic care services

All patients who are clinically stable should be monitored at least every 4 months; this includes both patients who are receiving ART and those who are not. Visits may require more frequent scheduling at entry to care, for management of acute problems, or when starting or changing ART regimens.

For treatment considerations, see Antiretroviral Therapy, which includes recommendations regarding initiation of ART, selection of an ART regimen, monitoring for ART-specific side effects, optimizing treatment adherence, and changing regimens.

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II. COMPREHENSIVE BASELINE HISTORY

Updated April 2011

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should:

• Obtain an HIV-related history at baseline (see Table 1) (AI)
• Use vocabulary that patients can understand, regardless of education level, when obtaining the history (AIII)
• Use interpreter or sign language services when language or hearing barriers exist (AIII)

Clinicians who treat HIV-infected patients should attempt to obtain previous medical records, including documentation of positive FDA-approved diagnostic and confirmatory HIV tests (see Diagnostic, Monitoring, and Resistance Laboratory Tests for HIV). (AIII)

Clinicians must report confirmed cases of HIV according to New York State Law and should educate patients with reportable illnesses about the potential for confidential follow-up from the New York State Department of Health (for more information about required reporting, see www.health.ny.gov/diseases/aids/regulations/partner_services/index.htm).

Clinicians should address the importance of partner notification with HIV-infected patients and should stress the confidential nature of discussions regarding sexual history and substance use.

An important aspect of providing care for HIV-infected patients is obtaining a baseline history that includes the most detailed information possible regarding patients’ health, ongoing health risks, and previous HIV treatment (see Table 1). Because of the complexity of a comprehensive history, as well as the complexity of ongoing HIV care, effective communication between the patient and provider is essential. Patients should receive information that is well organized and easy to understand. All members of the healthcare team should use vocabulary that optimizes patient education and patient-provider communication.

Patients should be informed about the importance of the baseline history for establishing a framework for their ongoing HIV care. This may also include asking a patient to repeat back information in his/her own words to identify areas requiring increased health literacy.* When language or hearing barriers exist, clinicians should use an interpreter. For patients who have received HIV care from previous providers, past medical records should be obtained whenever possible. A member of the healthcare team may encourage patients to bring their past medical records; however, clinicians should be aware that 1) patients may not wish to disclose to their previous providers that they are changing providers, and 2) fees may be associated with such requests.

* As defined by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine,¹ health literacy includes the ability to understand prescribing instructions, appointment slips, medical education brochures, doctor’s directions and consent forms and the ability to negotiate complex health care systems. Health literacy requires reading, listening, analytical, and decision-making skills, as well as the ability to apply these skills to health situations.

Although clinicians may obtain all elements of a comprehensive history during the first few visits to the clinic, it is important to address sexuality and non-prescription drug use during the initial and subsequent clinical encounters. The confidential nature of these discussions should be stressed. Clinicians should note that although the patient may choose not to disclose all pertinent personal information during the first visit, a sympathetic and nonjudgmental attitude can help establish trust and facilitate discussion of these issues during subsequent visits. Patient disclosure of sexual history and substance use often occurs when the patient feels safest and most comfortable to do so.

When obtaining a sexual history, terms such as lesbian, homosexual, or gay should be avoided. Questions should relate to the patient’s behavior and not to “sexual identity.” The information derived will be more useful to the clinician and the questions less threatening to many patients. For example, when talking to a male patient, the clinician should ask, Are your sexual partners men, women, or sometimes both?, and not, Are you a homosexual? or Are you gay?, because the patient may not identify with the words “homosexual” or “gay.”

When assessing alcohol and substance use, clinicians should avoid judgmental language that can exacerbate stigma, such as “substance abuse” or “alcohol abuse.” Instead of asking, Do you drink?, the clinician can ask, What do you like to drink: beer, wine, or liquor? Phrasing a question with “even once,” such as, Have you ever injected drugs, even once?, may provide useful information for the clinician.

Clinicians who are uncomfortable asking questions about substance and alcohol use or different sexual behaviors should seek training to enhance their comfort level. For information regarding risk-reduction counseling related to sexual transmission, refer to the HIV Prevention Guidelines: Prevention with Positives: Integrating HIV Prevention into HIV Primary Care. For scripted dialog for assessing substance use, refer to the HIV and Substance Use Guidelines: Screening and Ongoing Assessment for Substance Use.

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III. COMPREHENSIVE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

Updated March 2007 — Currently Under Revision

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should perform a baseline and annual comprehensive physical examination, with particular attention to areas potentially affected by HIV (see Table 2).

A. Vital Signs, Symptoms, and General Appearance

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should assess vital signs and weight at each visit. (III)

Clinicians should inquire about new symptoms at each visit. (III)

Clinicians should note changes in general appearance, body habitus, and physical well-being. (III)

Vital signs, symptoms, and general appearance should be assessed at each visit. Weight should be included because weight gain or loss can be the first sign of therapy success or failure, even before laboratory test results are available.

Assessment of symptoms may require direct questioning because patients may not consider their symptoms important until significant morbidity has occurred, or they may simply forget to tell the clinician about new symptoms during the visit.

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B. Pain Assessment

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should ask HIV-infected patients about pain at each visit, as well as document any complaints of pain, attempt to identify underlying causes, and respond with efforts to alleviate it. (III)

Clinicians should not deny treatment of pain because of a patient’s history of addiction. (III)

Clinicians should assess patients with chronic pain for fatigue and mental health disorders and include referral to a pain-management specialist as a treatment option. (III)

HIV-infected patients are at increased risk for development of certain painful conditions, particularly neuropathy, which can be due to medications, diabetes, or the underlying HIV infection. Some opportunistic infections are painful, such as chronic herpes simplex virus or varicella zoster virus. Treatment of pain can be complicated if the patient has a history of substance use, and the extended use of opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines may require consultation with substance use treatment professionals. However, no patient should be denied treatment for pain because of a history of substance use. For further guidance on pain management in HIV-infected substance users, refer to the HIV and Substance Use Guidelines: Pain in the HIV-Infected Substance User.

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C. Ophthalmologic Assessment and Referral

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Patients with CD4 counts <50 cells/mm³ should be examined by an ophthalmologist at baseline and every 6 months. (III)

Patients with visual disturbances or unremitting ocular symptoms, regardless of CD4 cell count, should be evaluated by an ophthalmologist. (III)

Eye examinations by an ophthalmologist, ideally one experienced with the ocular complications of HIV infection, are important, especially for patients at higher risk for CMV retinitis resulting from declining immune function. This examination should include a dilated funduscopic assessment with indirect ophthalmoscopy. See Ophthalmologic Complications of HIV Infection.

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D. Oral Examination

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should ascertain whether their patients have a regular oral health provider and should refer all HIV-infected patients for annual hygiene and intraoral examinations, including dental caries and soft-tissue examinations. (III)

Clinicians should make an annual dental referral for every HIV-infected patient under their care. As part of the annual physical examination, the clinician should visually examine and palpate the patient’s lips, labial and buccal mucosa, all surfaces of the tongue and palate, and the floor of the mouth. The gingiva should be examined for signs of erythema, ulceration, or recession. Appropriate access to urgent dental care should be identified. See Oral Health Complications of HIV Infection.

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E. Dermatologic Examination

Dermatologic findings, such as rash, lesions of Kaposi’s sarcoma, and vasculitis, may all be the first signs of progression of HIV, comorbid diseases, or toxicities of treatment. Seborrheic dermatitis can be an indicator of immune deficiency. Maceration of the gluteal cleft may not be noticed by the patient but could be a result of Candida infection or herpes simplex virus. Molluscum contagiosum may appear slightly larger and in more clusters in HIV-infected patients. Onychomycosis may involve all fingernails and toenails. Diffuse folliculitis with associated pruritus may occur with immunodeficiency.

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F. Lymph Node Examination

Generalized lymphadenopathy is a common finding during all stages of HIV disease. Reactive lymph nodes may be prominent in early stages of HIV, diminish as disease progresses, and return with immune reconstitution after effective ART has been established. Presentation of asymmetry, clusters of large nodes, or sudden increase in size, firmness, or tenderness of nodes may signal infection, malignancy, or opportunistic infections. Lymph node clusters that are normally quiescent, including posterior cervical chain, submental, supraclavicular, epitrochlear, axillary, and femoral nodes, should not be overlooked.

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G. Chest Examination

The chest examination should include cardiac and pulmonary assessments (see Table 2). HIV infection can cause cardiac abnormalities; however, the prevalence of cardiac disease in HIV-infected individuals is not clear. Pericardial effusion and myocarditis are among the most commonly reported abnormalities, although cardiomyopathy, endocarditis, and coronary vasculopathy also have been reported. The evaluation of respiratory symptoms in HIV-infected patients can be challenging because they may be due to a wide spectrum of illnesses, which may or may not be related to HIV. HIV-related conditions include both opportunistic infections and neoplasms.

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H. Abdominal Examination

Hepatosplenomegaly may be caused by infection, medications, alcohol, or other infiltrative disease processes. Certain combinations of ART may increase the likelihood of finding multiple lipomata in the subcutaneous fat. Increased visceral fat associated with ART may cause abdominal distension, requiring radiologic imaging to evaluate for other processes such as ascites.

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I. Genital and Rectal Examination

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should examine all HIV-infected patients for ulcerative lesions. (III)

Clinicians should perform a gynecologic examination in all HIV-infected women or refer them to a gynecologist at baseline and at least annually. (II)

At baseline and as part of the annual physical examination for all HIV-infected adults, regardless of age, clinicians should (III):

• Inquire about rectal symptoms, such as itching, bleeding, diarrhea, or pain
• Perform a visual inspection of the perianal region
• Perform a digital rectal examination

Clinicians should refer women with cervical HSIL and any patient with abnormal anal physical findings, such as warts, hypopigmented or hyperpigmented plaques/lesions, lesions that bleed, or any other lesions of uncertain etiology, for high-resolution anoscopy and/or examination with biopsy of abnormal tissue.

Because patients may be reluctant to report signs or symptoms of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or other genital abnormalities, it is important that clinicians examine for vaginal or penile discharge and carefully inspect the anogenital area, including the vulva and vagina in women, for ulcerative lesions. Lesions attributable to HPV, syphilis, and classic herpes simplex virus (HSV) should be examined for, as well as atypical HSV presentations, such as non-healing gluteal cleft maceration. In addition to a genital examination, a careful pelvic examination is essential for women.

During the rectal examination, evidence of skin abnormality around the anus should be referred for high-resolution anoscopy (HRA) and/or examination with biopsy of abnormal tissue. For additional information, see Anal Dysplasia and Cancer.

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J. Neuropsychological Examination

1. Neurologic Examination

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should examine for sensory and motor abnormalities, especially peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar function, and cognitive impairment.

Clinicians should refer patients with more complex suspected or proven peripheral neuropathy syndromes to a neurologist to assist with the diagnosis and management.

HIV-related neurologic changes can occur, even without the neurologic side effects of medications, especially as the infection progresses. For further information regarding neurologic complications, including screening tools for cognitive impairment, see Neurologic Complications of HIV Infection and the HIV and Mental Health Guidelines: Cognitive Disorders and HIV/AIDS.

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2. Mental Health and Substance Use Assessment

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should perform a mental health assessment at baseline and at least annually. The assessment should include the following components (I):

• Depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal/violent ideation, and substance use
• Sleep habits and appetite assessment
• Psychiatric history, including psychotropic medications
• Psychosocial assessment, including domestic violence and housing status

Clinicians should refer patients to appropriate mental health and substance use treatment providers when indicated. (II)

Clinicians should incorporate selected brief screening instruments into the assessment process. The chosen screening instruments should be tailored for optimal use at initial, annual, and interim visits and adjusted for the patient’s mental health or substance use history. (III)

A number of mental health and substance use screening tools are available for use by primary care providers (see Appendix A). For further information on mental health screening and treatment, refer to the HIV and Mental Health Guidelines and Screening Tools for Completing Mental Health Assessments in HIV Primary Care Settings. For further information on substance use screening and treatment, refer to the HIV and Substance Use Guidelines: Screening and Ongoing Assessment for Substance Use.

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IV. LABORATORY ASSESSMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTING

Updated March 2011 — Currently Under Revision

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should order appropriate laboratory assessments and screening tests for management of HIV-infected patients (see Table 3). (III)

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A. Immunologic Assessment

RECOMMENDATION:

The CD4 lymphocyte profile should include both the absolute count and percentage. (I)

A decline in absolute CD4 count may occur in some situations, such as after interferon therapy, when all lymphocyte populations are suppressed; however, the percentage of CD4 lymphocytes will remain relatively constant. A stable CD4 percentage generally indicates stable immune function even in the presence of declining absolute counts.

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B. Virologic Assessment

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should use an assay with a high upper limit of detection (e.g., ≥750,000 copies/mL) for initial measurement of HIV viral load in ART-naïve patients. All patients with a viral load of <400 copies/mL after the initial test should be monitored with an assay that can detect ≤50 copies/mL. (III)

Clinicians should obtain viral load before vaccinations and not during intercurrent illness because these situations may lead to a transient elevation in viral load. (III)

Clinicians should perform resistance testing under the following circumstances:

• At baseline, regardless of whether ART is being initiated (genotypic testing)
• In ART-naïve patients before initiation of ART (genotypic testing)
• In patients experiencing treatment failure or incomplete viral suppression while receiving ART (genotypic and/or phenotypic testing)

Clinicians should seek expert consultation for interpretation of genotypes. (III)

There are several methods of measuring HIV viral load levels (e.g., PCR, bDNA, NASBA), each with different ranges (e.g., standard, ultrasensitive). The same assay should be used consistently to avoid confusion. The range of detection for the standard PCR assay is 400 to 750,000 copies/mL, whereas the range for the ultrasensitive assay is 50 to 75,000 copies/mL. Some newer assays have a greater dynamic range than either the standard or ultrasensitive assay (e.g., 40 to 10,000,000 copies/mL). The initial test performed in an ART-naïve individual should be an assay that can document a potentially high viral load level. All patients with a viral load <400 copies/mL should be re-tested with an assay that can detect ≤50 copies/mL (see Diagnostic, Monitoring, and Resistance Laboratory Tests for HIV).

Resistance testing should be performed 1) at baseline in the setting of acute infection, regardless of whether ART is being initiated (genotypic testing); 2) prior to initiating treatment in ART-naïve patients to determine whether they are infected with drug-resistant virus (genotypic testing); and 3) in patients experiencing virologic failure or incomplete viral suppression while receiving ART (genotypic and/or phenotypic testing). Most currently available assays require a viral load level of >500 to 1000 copies/mL for detection. For more information regarding resistance testing, refer to the section HIV Resistance Assays in Antiretroviral Therapy.

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C. Tuberculosis Evaluation

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should obtain a TST (tuberculin skin test, commonly known as PPD) or other FDA-approved test for diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection, unless the patient has previously tested positive or has had previously documented TB. (I)

After active tuberculosis has been excluded, clinicians should prescribe TB prophylaxis when a TST results in induration of ≥5 mm or when another FDA-approved test indicates the presence of latent TB infection. (I)

Induration of ≥5 mm with a TST (tuberculin skin test, commonly known as PPD) is considered a positive reaction in the HIV-infected population and warrants prophylaxis. In general, anergy testing is no longer recommended.³ See Mycobacterial Infections.

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D. Laboratory Screening for Sexually Transmitted Infections

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should screen HIV-infected patients for syphilis by obtaining a non-treponemal test (RPR or VDRL) with verification of reactive test by confirmatory fluorescent treponemal antibody absorbance (FTA-Abs) or treponema pallidum particle agglutination (TP-PA) tests at baseline and at least annually. Patients with continued high-risk behavior should be screened for syphilis every 3 months.

Clinicians should screen sexually active HIV-infected women under the age of 25 for gonorrhea and chlamydia at baseline and at least annually. Clinicians should screen all sites of possible exposure, including the cervix, rectum, and pharynx. Culture or nucleic acid amplification tests (NAT) should be used to screen for gonorrhea. Immunofluorescence or DNA amplification should be used for chlamydia.

Clinicians should screen women 25 years of age or older for gonorrhea and chlamydia at baseline and at least annually if they have or have had a recent sexually transmitted infection, have multiple sexual partners, have had a new sexual partner, or have a sexual partner with symptoms of an STI.

Clinicians should screen all HIV-infected men with ongoing high-risk sexual behaviors for gonorrhea and chlamydia at baseline and at least annually. Clinicians should screen all sites of possible exposure, including the urethra, rectum, and pharynx.

Clinicians must report all suspected or confirmed syphilis, chancroid, gonococcal, and C trachomatis infections to the local health department of the area where the patient resides according to NYS requirements (also see reportable communicable diseases).

The FTA-Abs and TP-PA confirmatory tests remain positive for life if there has been a history of syphilis infection. Some individuals previously treated for syphilis will continue to have a low serum antibody-positive RPR or VDRL. A 4-fold increase in RPR serum antibody indicates acute infection or re-infection with syphilis.

Refer to Management of STIs in HIV-Infected Patients for more information about screening for STIs.

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E. Cytologic Screening

1. Cervical Pap Tests

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should obtain cervical Pap tests for all HIV-infected women at baseline, 6 months after baseline, and then repeat annually, as long as results are normal.

Colposcopy should be performed for women with abnormal Pap tests. Follow-up would then vary on a case-by-case basis.

Clinicians should repeat abnormal Pap tests every 3 to 6 months thereafter until there have been two successive normal cervical Pap tests. Women with cervical HSIL also should be referred for high-resolution anoscopy and/or examination with biopsy of abnormal tissue.

Clinicians should obtain at least an annual Pap test in HIV-infected women who have undergone either a supracervical or total hysterectomy.

The purpose of cervical screening is to prevent the development of invasive cancer by identifying and treating individuals with precursor lesions that are at risk for progression to cancer. Widespread screening of all women with cervical cytology or Pap tests has led to a decline in morbidity and mortality from cervical cancer. The benefit of screening and treatment protocols for cervical abnormalities in HIV-infected women is also well-established. Although cervical cytology (Pap tests) has lower sensitivity compared to actual tissue histology, colposcopy with Pap tests has increased the effectiveness of the evaluation of women with HIV infection, particularly those women with a report of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) by delineating likely abnormal tissue for biopsy and histologic evaluation.⁴

Recurrent dysplasia on the vaginal cuff can be seen in women with a history of cervical dysplasia, and both HIV and HPV infections increase the risk of vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia. Therefore, women who have undergone a hysterectomy should still receive annual Pap tests. For additional information, see Cervical Cancer and Dysplasia.

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2. Anal Pap Tests

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should obtain anal cytology at baseline and annually in the following HIV-infected populations:

• Men who have sex with men
• Any patient with a history of anogenital condylomas
• Women with abnormal cervical/vulvar histology

Clinicians should refer patients with abnormal anal cytology for high-resolution anoscopy and/or examination with biopsy of abnormal tissue. (III)

Like cervical cancer, invasive squamous cell cancers of the anal canal are associated with certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, most notably, HPV-16 and HPV-18. Although this is a new practice that may not be routinely available, screening for cellular dysplasia is prudent and recommended, particularly in persons at high risk for infection with papilloma viruses. For additional information, see Anal Dysplasia and Cancer.

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V. HEALTH PROMOTION AND BEHAVIORAL HEALTH COUNSELING

Updated March 2007

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should provide routine HIV risk-reduction counseling and behavioral health counseling for HIV-infected patients (see Table 4). (I)

Patients’ behaviors change over time as the course of their disease changes and their social situations vary. The clinician will need to tailor routine risk-reduction counseling and behavioral health counseling not only to the individual patient but also to the particular point in time in the patient’s life.⁵

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A. Safer Sex Education

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should discuss safer sexual practices with HIV-infected patients on a routine and ongoing basis. (I)

Clinicians should routinely discuss with patients the importance of disclosure to partners. Patients should be educated about the options for voluntary partner notification. These discussions should be clearly documented. Information about HIV reporting and partner notification in New York State is available at provider reporting and partner services. (I)

Clinicians should emphasize that transmission of HIV may occur during unprotected sex, even when patients have undetectable HIV plasma viral loads. (I)

Clinicians should recommend the correct and consistent use of latex or, when latex allergies exist, polyurethane male condoms and should discuss the option of using polyurethane female condoms. (I)

Clinicians should instruct patients in the proper use of condoms, dental dams, and other barriers to reduce the risk of HIV transmission. (I)

Clinicians should educate their patients to avoid using condoms and creams containing nonoxynol-9. (I)

For patients who are sexually active, discussion should include a review of safer practices to prevent the transmission of HIV or other STIs. It is important to note that risk for transmission of HIV is increased in the setting of STIs, underscoring the importance of correct and consistent use of barrier protection during vaginal, rectal, or oral intercourse. Patients should be informed that because condoms do not cover all exposed areas, they are more effective in preventing infections transmitted by fluids from mucosal surfaces than in preventing infections transmitted by skin-to-skin contact.

The use of both male and female condoms among patients should be encouraged, despite adverse attitudes toward them in some communities. Condoms should be offered along with instructions, support, counseling, and referral to community-based organizations.

Clinicians should also inform patients that condoms containing nonoxynol-9, a topical spermicide used to prevent conception, should be avoided. In at least one large placebo-controlled study of sex workers using nonoxynol-9, there was an increase in new HIV infection.⁶

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B. Substance Use Counseling

RECOMMENDATIONS:

When current alcohol or other substance use is identified, clinicians should discuss the possible effects of such use on the patient’s general health and HIV medications, as well as options for treatment if indicated. These discussions should be properly documented in the patient’s chart. (I)

Clinicians should evaluate for possible interactions among illicit drugs and prescription drugs. (I)

Clinicians should issue prescriptions for new needles and syringes to patients who inject drugs.

Clinicians should discuss with patients other options for accessing new needles and syringes, including use of the Expanded Syringe Access Demonstration Program and Syringe Exchange Programs, New York State’s two syringe access initiatives. (I)

Clinicians should collaborate with social work staff and other mental health providers, when available, to determine which treatment programs or substance use services best meet the patient’s needs. (I)

The HIV and Substance Use Guidelines contain information on the management of HIV-infected substance users. For specific information regarding interactions between illicit drugs and prescription drugs, refer to the HIV and Substance Use Guidelines: Drug-Drug Interactions Between Antiretroviral Agents, Medications Used in Substance Use Treatment, and Recreational Drugs.

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C. Tobacco Use Assessment and Counseling

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should assess smoking status and should encourage those who smoke to stop (I). Pharmacotherapy and referrals to smoking cessation programs should be provided if the patient is interested.

Smoking increases a patient’s risk of developing thrush, cryptococcal meningitis, bacterial pneumonias, and coronary artery disease. In addition, HIV infection further increases the risk of lung and other cancers associated with smoking.

Smoking cessation interventions delivered during routine visits will reach many smokers who are already receiving care for their HIV infection. Patients who are interested in quitting smoking within the next month should be helped to set a quit date, offered pharmacotherapy with nicotine replacement or bupropion, and referred to a counseling program. For further guidance on smoking cessation, refer to Smoking Cessation in HIV-Infected Patients.

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D. Reproductive Counseling

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should discuss family planning with patients, including risks to the mother and fetus during pregnancy.

Many patients have questions about having children even though they or their partners are infected with HIV. Risks to the mother and fetus, as well as the risk of HIV transmission through breastfeeding, should be discussed. Alternative or supplemental family planning methods beyond condom use may also be addressed.

For additional information, refer to the Women’s Health Guidelines: Preconception Care for HIV-Infected Women.

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E. Domestic Violence

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians or a member of the healthcare team should screen all male and female HIV-infected patients for current and lifetime domestic violence at baseline and annually. (I)

Prior to screening patients for domestic violence, clinicians should discuss confidentiality and exceptions to confidentiality, including instances of suspected child abuse and maltreatment and intent to harm self or others.

Domestic violence screening should be performed only when the patient is alone.

When real or potential domestic violence is recognized, social work services should be involved and referrals should be made to domestic violence organizations or domestic violence counseling. In the absence of social work services, clinicians should be familiar with resources available in the community and mechanisms of referral.

The following are questions that may be used for screening:

1. Do you ever feel unsafe at home?
2. Are you in a relationship in which you have been physically hurt or felt threatened?
3. Have you ever been or are you currently concerned about harming your partner or someone close to you?

Other questions regarding sexual abuse, such as forced sexual activity, coercion, etc., may be applicable depending on the case.

For more information regarding assessment for domestic violence, refer to the New York State Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence, available at: http://opdv.state.ny.us/

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F. Psychosocial Assessment

RECOMMENDATIONS:

The clinician or a member of the healthcare team should perform a psychosocial assessment of HIV-infected patients, including housing status, at baseline and at least annually. (I)

The clinician should work with the patient’s case manager to provide necessary medical guidance related to psychosocial issues that are potential barriers to treatment adherence. (I)

When case managers are unavailable, clinicians will need to be able to refer their patients to social workers who can provide psychosocial services and facilitate referrals to supportive services. See Table 4 for elements of a psychosocial assessment.

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G. Diet and Exercise Counseling

Diet and exercise counseling can enhance the management of and the patient’s knowledge about the risks associated with diabetes, hypertension, problems associated with lipid abnormalities, and potential side effects of medications.

For more information regarding nutrition among HIV-infected patients, refer to General Nutrition, Weight Loss, and Wasting Syndrome.

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VI. PREVENTIVE MEDICINE

Updated March 2011

A. Standard Health Maintenance

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should discuss general preventive health care and health maintenance with all HIV-infected patients routinely and, at a minimum, annually. (I)

Clinicians should perform standardized age- and sex-appropriate health-maintenance interventions, such as cancer screening, in HIV-infected patients according to the same guidelines used for non-HIV-infected patients (see Table 5). (I)

Clinicians should instruct patients on how to perform breast and testicular self-examinations. (III)

Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States. According to the United States Preventive Services Task Force, universal screening for colorectal cancer in the general population should begin at age 50 in the absence of specific risk factors, such as previous colorectal cancer, strong family history, familial polyposis, or inflammatory bowel disease. Some data support screening African Americans aged ≥45 because they have a younger mean age of onset of colorectal cancer compared with other groups and a greater incidence of cancerous lesions in the proximal large bowel.⁷

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B. Opportunistic Infection Prophylaxis

RECOMMENDATION:

Clinicians should initiate prophylaxis for specific opportunistic infections as indicated in Table 6 and discontinue it as indicated in Table 7. (I)

Prophylaxis for opportunistic infections may be withdrawn for patients who are on effective ART and who have evidence of recovery of immunologic competence.

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C. Immunizations

Immunizations against infectious diseases are an extremely important component of care for patients with immune suppression. Concerns regarding vaccinations in HIV-infected individuals include:

• The potential danger from live virus vaccines
• The ability of HIV-infected patients to mount an appropriate immune response to vaccine

In general, the more intact the immune system is, the more effective and safe the vaccines are. The use of live virus vaccines is generally undertaken when an inactivated version does not exist and when the risk of the disease clearly outweighs the theoretical risk of vaccination. Table 8 contains recommended immunizations for HIV-infected adults.

For more information regarding immunizations, including immunizations for pregnant HIV-infected women, refer to the HIV Prevention Guidelines: Prevention of Secondary Diseases.

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VII. COORDINATION OF CARE

Updated March 2007

RECOMMENDATIONS:

As part of the initial visit, the clinician or other member of the healthcare team should educate new patients about the following items (III):

• How to access emergency services (provide a phone number for 24-hour services)
• Whom to contact to schedule appointments
• How to obtain laboratory and radiology results, medical records, and other reports

After receiving patient consent, clinicians should share information with other agencies from which their patients are receiving services. (III)

Case management should be used to enhance coordination of care provided by agencies such as home care, nutrition services, and nursing services and to prevent duplication of services. (III)

Clinicians should regularly involve case managers in case conferences to discuss psychosocial issues that may affect a patient’s ability to adhere to care. (III)

Comprehensive HIV care often involves multidisciplinary care with involvement of more than one provider. To facilitate adherence to all facets of care, the clinician should work with the case management team to coordinate medical care, referrals, and ongoing services in the community.

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VIII. APPROPRIATE USE OF ACUTE CARE SERVICES

Updated March 2007

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Outpatient clinicians who do not provide inpatient care should have a network of practitioners with whom they can communicate easily should their patients require hospitalization. (III)

Inpatient clinicians should ensure that the details of hospitalization, including the discharge medications and plans, are sent in a timely fashion to outpatient clinicians. (III)

Communication among practitioners is essential when patients move between primary care clinicians and other healthcare settings. When patients are referred to the emergency room, communication with the emergency room physician, both by phone and by transmission of essential data, such as pertinent medical conditions, the medication list, the patient’s most recent CD4 count and viral load, and any other pertinent clinical data, can improve the patient’s care and help prevent unnecessary testing or hospitalization. If the patient needs to be hospitalized and the primary care clinician is not the admitting physician, communication of these data to the admitting physician is essential.

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IX. APPROPRIATE USE OF CHRONIC CARE SERVICES

Updated March 2007

Communication is essential between outpatient practitioners and all professionals involved in the patient’s care. This includes both nursing services and other consultants and ancillary providers such as physical therapists.

A. AIDS Adult Day Health Care Program

AIDS Adult Day Health Care Programs (ADHCs) are designed to assist in meeting the healthcare needs of patients with HIV/AIDS who require a greater range of comprehensive healthcare services than can be provided in any single ambulatory setting but who do not require the level of services provided in a hospital or skilled nursing facility. Through a therapeutic environment, ADHCs are intended to improve and stabilize the health of patients with HIV/AIDS, assist patients with adherence support, reduce hospital stays, eliminate unnecessary visits to primary care clinicians and emergency rooms, and provide interventions in the form of one-on-one counseling and structured group activities for substance use and mental health disorders. Nursing care, nutritional services, case management, and HIV risk reduction, as well as auricular acupuncture and therapeutic massage, are also provided. For more information on these programs, contact 1-518-474-8162.

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B. Home Health Care

RECOMMENDATION:

Home health nurses should be provided with a copy of the patient’s medication list and information regarding current medical conditions and mental health or substance use disorders. (III)

Home care, including infusion therapy, can help maintain the patient’s health and reduce the need for hospitalization. AIDS Home Care Programs (AHCPs) ensure patients’ access to enhanced physician services, dental care, HIV prevention and education services, substance use and treatment services, pastoral care, mental health services, peer support, HIV clinical trials, and HIV therapies. AHCP services may be provided by a long-term home health care program or a Designated AIDS Center specifically authorized to provide these services.

AHCPs are responsible for arranging and/or providing the following: nursing services, home health aide services, medical supplies, equipment and appliances, physical and occupational therapy, speech pathology, nutritional services, medical social services, personal care services, and housekeeping services. Long-term home health care programs may also provide personal emergency response, meals on wheels, housing improvement, home maintenance, moving assistance, social daycare, and social transportation services.

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C. End-of-Life Care

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Clinicians should encourage patients to prepare an advanced directive and designate a health care proxy and should review these arrangements at least annually.

As HIV disease progresses, clinicians should discuss patients’ feelings about end-of-life care before they are unable to make decisions. Any medical decisions that are made should be in conjunction with the patient, or, if the patient is unable to decide for neurologic reasons, with the patient’s health care proxy. (III)

Clinicians should be familiar with hospice services available in their area and should make referrals to them early enough for the patient to receive the full benefit of their support (III). Clinicians should work in conjunction with hospice staff to establish which medical interventions may still be appropriate as quality of life evolves or changes. (III)

End-stage HIV infection often involves a series of treatments for opportunistic infections, tumors, or other life-threatening comorbid conditions, such as liver failure. When both the patient and the clinician agree that aggressive care is no longer desired or likely to succeed, supportive care with a goal to maximize comfort is appropriate.

Clinicians should work with hospice staff to establish which interventions may still be appropriate as quality of life declines. For example, continuing aggressive care of cytomegalovirus retinitis to prevent blindness is a treatment that may need to be continued even though the patient has elected to discontinue other active medications.

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REFERENCES

1. National Network of Libraries of Medicine. Health Literacy. Bethesda, Md. Available at: http://nnlm.gov/outreach/consumer/hlthlit.html

2. Palefsky J, Holly E, Ralston M, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for anal human papillomavirus infection in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and high-risk HIV-negative women. J Infect Dis 2001;183:383-391. [PubMed]

3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Anergy skin testing and tuberculosis preventive therapy for HIV-infected persons: Revised recommendations. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1997;46(RR-15):1-10. [PubMed]

4. Franco EL, Duarte-Franco E, Ferenczy A. Cervical cancer: Epidemiology, prevention and the role of human papillomavirus infection. CMAJ 2001;164:1017-1025. [PubMed]

5. Schreibman T, Friedland G. Human immunodeficiency virus infection prevention: Strategies for clinicians. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:1171-1176. [PubMed]

6. Van Damme L, Ramjee G, Alary M, et al. Effectiveness of COL-1492, a nonoxynol-9 vaginal gel, on HIV-1 transmission in female sex workers: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360:971-977 (Erratum in: Lancet 2002;360:1892). [PubMed]

7. Agrawal S, Bhupinderjit A, Bhutani MS, et al.; for the Committee of Minority Affairs and Cultural Diversity, American College of Gastroenterology. Colorectal cancer in African Americans. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100;515-523. [PubMed]

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APPENDIX A: MENTAL HEALTH SCREENING: A QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE FOR HIV PRIMARY CARE CLINICIANS

Updated June 2012

Click here to order a hard copy.

Click here to download Table A-1: Mental Health Screening: A Quick Reference Guide for HIV Primary Care Clinicians.

Click image to enlarge.

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